COGNITIVE PROCESS

The cognitive process refers to the mental activities involved in acquiring, storing, processing, and using information. These processes are how we think, learn, remember, solve problems, and make decisions.

In simple terms, cognitive processes are the ways our brain helps us understand and interact with the world.

Cognitive Processes Include-

Attention – Focusing mental energy on specific information.
Perception – Recognizing and interpreting sensory information (what we see, hear, feel).
Intelligence – Understand, reason, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.It involves logical thinking, verbal ability, spatial awareness, and emotional understanding.
Learning – Acquiring new knowledge or skills through experience.
Memory – Storing and recalling past experiences or facts.
Thinking – Forming ideas, making decisions, solving problems.
Aptitude – A natural or acquired ability to learn or perform certain tasks effectively.
Language – Understanding and using words to communicate.

Attention

INTRODUCTION

Attention is one of the most essential cognitive processes in psychology. It refers to the mental ability to focus selectively on specific information from the environment while ignoring other irrelevant stimuli.

In everyday life, we are constantly surrounded by a variety of sensory inputs—sounds, sights, smells, and thoughts. Our attention acts like a filter, helping us concentrate on what matters most at a given moment.

DEFINITION

Attention is the process of concentrating mental focus on a particular stimulus, object, or activity while ignoring other distractions.

Psychological definitions-

According to williamjames (father of psychology)-

“attention is the taking possession of the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought.”

According to titchener-

“attention is a state of sensory clearness.”

According to j.b.watson-

“attention is the selective activity of consciousness.”

Features of attention

It is selective (focuses on one thing at a time).
It is limited in capacity (we can’t attend to everything at once).
It is shifting (can be redirected from one object to another).
It is the gateway to perception, learning, and memory.

TYPE OF ATTENTION

S. No.	TYPE	DESCRIPTION	FEATURE	EXAMPLE
1.	Voluntary Attention	Attention that is purposeful and intentional, such as studying for an exam.	Based on willpower and motivation.	Studying with focus
2.	Involuntary Attention	Attention that is drawn automatically by strong or sudden stimuli (e.g. loud noise).	Occurs without conscious effort.	Hearing a sudden alarm
3.	Habitual Attention	Attention that becomes automatic due to repetition, such as reading signs while driving.	Develops through repetition and experience.	Observing road signs while driving
4.	Selective Attention	Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others, like listening to a friend in a noisy room.	Helps manage sensory overload.	Talking in a noisy room
5.	Sustained Attention	Maintaining focus on one task for a prolonged period, such as writing an exam.	Requires mental endurance.	Reading a book for hours
6.	Divided Attention	Attending to multiple tasks at once, like cooking while talking on the phone.	Involves multi-tasking ability.	Typing while listening to music

Determinants of Attention (Factors Influencing Attention):

Category	Determinants
External (Stimulus-related)	– Intensity (loud sound, bright light) – Contrast (something different from surroundings) – Novelty or unfamiliarity – Movement and change
Internal (Individual-related)	– Interest and motivation – Emotional state – Past experience – Habits and needs – Level of alertness or fatigue

Duration of Attention-

Short attention span in children or distracted individuals (a few seconds to minutes).
Sustained attention in adults during tasks of interest can last 20–40 minutes, but usually requires breaks.

Degree of Attention-

Refers to the intensity and depth of concentration.
Influenced by motivation, task difficulty, and personal relevance.
Can range from low (distracted) to high (fully absorbed or focused).

Alteration in Attention:

Type	Description
Distractibility	Inability to maintain attention due to irrelevant stimuli (common in ADHD, anxiety).
Hyper-attention	Excessive focus on a particular thought or stimulus (seen in OCD, anxiety disorders).
Inattention	Reduced ability to concentrate, often seen in fatigue, depression, or schizophrenia.
Labile attention	Fluctuating or shifting attention, commonly seen in manic states.
Neglect	Ignoring part of the visual or spatial field, usually due to brain injury.

PERCEPTION

Meaning of Perception-

Perception is the process by which individuals organize and interpret sensory information to give meaning to their environment.

It is how we see, understand, and respond to the world around us.

“Perception is the process by which people select, organize, and interpret sensory input to give meaning to their environment.”

PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTION

These principles explain how perception works and why we interpret things differently.

Figure and Ground-
1. We tend to separate an object (figure) from its background (ground).
1. Example: Words on a page are the figure; the white page is the ground.
Perceptual Selectivity-
1. We do not notice everything around us. We focus on certain stimuli based on interest, need, or relevance.
Perceptual Organization (Gestalt Principles)-We tend to organize stimuli into meaningful patterns.
1. Similarity: We group similar items.
1. Proximity: Items close to each other are grouped.
1. Continuity: We prefer continuous patterns.
1. Closure: Our mind fills in gaps to perceive a complete image.
Perceptual Constancy-
1. We perceive objects as stable even when sensory input changes (e.g., size, shape, color).
Perceptual Defense-
1. We tend to block out or distort unpleasant or threatening information.

FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION-

Perception is influenced by various internal and external factors:

1. Personal (Internal) Factors-

Past Experience: What we’ve been through affects how we perceive new situations.
Motivation & Needs: What we want can shape what we notice or ignore.
Personality: Optimistic vs pessimistic people may perceive the same situation differently.
Emotions & Feelings: Mood affects perception (e.g., angry person sees neutral action as hostile).

2. Situational (External) Factors-

Time and Place: Perception changes depending on when and where the event occurs.
Social Setting: Presence of others may influence perception.
Context: Surroundings and environment can impact how something is interpreted.

3. Stimulus Characteristics-

Intensity: Loud or bright stimuli grab attention.
Size, Contrast, Repetition: Bigger, different, or repeated stimuli are more likely to be perceived.

INTELLIGENCE – MEANING

Definition

Intelligence refers to the ability to learn, understand, reason, and solve problems. It also includes the ability to adapt to new situations, think critically, and use knowledge effectively.

“Intelligence is the global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment.”

According to David Wechsler

Elements of Intelligence-

Learning Ability: Grasping new concepts quickly.
Problem-Solving: Finding solutions to complex or unfamiliar problems.
Reasoning: Logical and analytical thinking.
Adaptability: Adjusting to new environments or challenges.
Decision-Making: Making informed and effective choices.
Memory: Retaining and recalling information.

Types of Intelligence (as per psychologists like Howard Gardner)–

Linguistic Intelligence: Language and communication skills.
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: Reasoning and number skills.
Spatial Intelligence: Visualizing and understanding space.
Musical Intelligence: Sensitivity to sound and rhythm.
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: Physical coordination and movement.
Interpersonal Intelligence: Understanding others.
Intrapersonal Intelligence: Understanding oneself.
Naturalistic Intelligence: Understanding nature and the environment.

In Simple Words-

Intelligence is not just about scoring high on tests it’s about how well you understand things, solve problems, learn from experience, and adapt to your surroundings.

EFFECT OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT ON INTELLIGENCE

Heredity (Genetics)

Intelligence is partly inherited from parents.
Twin and family studies show that genetics play a significant role.
Traits like memory, reasoning, and learning capacity can be influenced by genes.

🔹 Environment

Environment shapes how intelligence is developed.
Factors include:
- Family background
- Education and schooling
- Nutrition and health
- Social and cultural exposure
A good environment can boost intellectual development, even if genetic potential is average.

Conclusion:Both heredity and environment work together. Heredity sets the potential, and environment helps in realizing it.

CLASSIFICATION OF INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence is usually classified based on IQ (Intelligence Quotient)

IQ Range	Classification
140 and above	Genius / Gifted
120 – 139	Superior
110 – 119	High Average
90 – 109	Average
80 – 89	Low Average
70 – 79	Borderline Deficiency
Below 70	Mentally Deficient

INTRODUCTION TO MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS

What are Intelligence Tests?

Tests designed to measure a person’s intellectual ability (IQ).

Types of Intelligence Tests-

Verbal Tests-
1. Use language-based questions.
1. Example: Vocabulary, comprehension.
Non-Verbal Tests-
1. Use pictures, symbols, or patterns.
1. Suitable for illiterate or language-barrier populations.
Performance Tests-
1. Involve hands-on activities like puzzles or block designs.

Famous Intelligence Tests-

Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
Raven’s Progressive Matrices (non-verbal)

MENTAL DEFICIENCIES (INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES)

Definition

A condition where a person has significantly below-average intelligence and difficulty in daily functioning.

IQ Levels and T-

IQ Range	Type	Characteristics
50–70	Mild	Can learn basic skills; may live independently.
35–49	Moderate	Needs support; limited communication.
20–34	Severe	Very limited self-care skills.
Below 20	Profound	Requires full-time care and supervision.

Noes-

Heredity determines potential; environment shapes development.
IQ classification helps understand intellectual levels.
Intelligence tests measure mental ability (verbal, non-verbal, performance).
Mental deficiency is diagnosed by low IQ and poor adaptive behavior.

LEARNING

Definition of Learning-

Learning is the process through which a person acquires new knowledge, skills, behaviors, or attitudes through experience, study, or practice.

“Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.”
B.F. Skinner

TYPES OF LEARNING-

There are several types of learning, based on how the information or behavior is acquired:

a) Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Learning)-

Learning by association.
Example: A dog learns to salivate at the sound of a bell if it’s always followed by food.

b) Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Learning)-

Learning through rewards and punishments.
Example: A child learns to do homework to get praise or avoid punishment.

c) Observational Learning (Modeling)-

Learning by observing others.
Example: A student learns how to behave in class by watching their classmates.

d) Cognitive Learning-

Involves mental processes like thinking, memory, and problem-solving.
Example: Learning a formula in math and applying it to solve problems.

e) Trial and Error Learning-

Learning by trying different methods until the correct one is found.
Example: A child learning to fit different shapes into matching holes.

FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING

a) Personal Factors-

Interest & Motivation: A student learns better when they are motivated.
Mental Health: Stress or anxiety can reduce the ability to learn.
Intelligence Level: Affects how quickly and effectively one can learn.

b) Environmental Factors-

Teaching Methods: Interactive or engaging methods improve learning.
Learning Environment: Clean, quiet, and well-lit spaces are better for concentration.
Social Environment: Encouragement from family, teachers, and peers helps.

c) Biological Factors-

Age: Young children usually learn faster.
Health & Nutrition: Proper health boosts brain function and concentration.

d) Psychological Factors-

Memory & Attention: Better memory helps retain what’s learned.
Emotional State: A calm and positive mood helps in better learning.

LEARNING PROCESS

Definition

The learning process is the step-by-step method by which an individual acquires new knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behaviors through experience, observation, or instruction.

STEPS IN THE LEARNING PROCESS

Motivation (Drive)
1. Learning begins when there is a need or desire to do or understand something.
1. Example: A student is motivated to study to pass an exam.
Goal or Objective
1. The learner sets a goal for what they want to learn.
1. Example: Understanding a math concept or learning how to swim.
Input / Stimulus
The learner receives information or stimuli from the environment (e.g., books, teachers, videos).
Perception / Understanding
1. The learner tries to make sense of the information.
Response / Action
1. Based on understanding, the learner reacts or applies what is learned.
Reinforcement
1. Positive outcomes or feedback encourage the behavior to be repeated.
1. Example: Praise from a teacher boosts motivation.
Retention / Memory
1. The knowledge or skill is stored in memory for future use.
Application / Transfer
1. The learner applies the learned behavior or knowledge in real-life situations.

HABIT FORMATION

Definition

A habit is a learned behavior that becomes automatic or routine through repeated practice.

“Habit is an acquired behavior pattern regularly followed until it has become almost involuntary.”

STAGES OF HABIT FORMATION

Learning Stage
1. The person learns a new behavior or action.
1. Example: Brushing teeth before sleeping.
Repetition Stage
1. The behavior is repeated regularly.
1. Repetition makes the action more natural and automatic.
Fixation Stage
1. After continuous repetition, the action becomes a habit.
1. The person performs it without conscious thought.

FACTORS INFLUENCING HABIT FORMATION

Frequency of repetition
Motivation and interest
Reward or reinforcement
Social influence and environment
Consistency in routine

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEARNING AND HABIT

Learning	Habit
Conscious and goal-directed	Automatic and routine-based
Requires attention and effort	Performed with little or no thought
Can be short-term or long-term	Usually long-term and stable
May or may not lead to habit	Is a result of repeated learning

MEMORY

Meaning and Nature of Memory

Meaning-

Memory is the mental ability to store, retain, and recall information when needed.

“Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.”

Nature of Memory-

Mental Process: It involves attention, learning, and thinking.
Dynamic: It can improve or decline with time and practice.
Selective: We tend to remember important things more easily.
Constructive: Memory is not always exact – we often reconstruct it.
Three Basic Processes-
- Encoding: Converting information into a form the brain can store.
- Storage: Holding the information over time.
- Retrieval: Bringing stored information into awareness when needed.

FACTORS INFLUENCING MEMORY

Factor	How It Affects Memory
Attention	Better focus improves memory retention.
Interest & Motivation	Increases concentration and recall ability.
Repetition	More repetition = better memory.
Understanding	Concepts understood are remembered better than rote learning.
Emotional State	Strong emotions (joy, fear) make memories stronger.
Health & Sleep	Poor health and lack of sleep reduce memory capacity.
Environment	Quiet and distraction-free places improve learning and memory.

METHODS TO IMPROVE MEMORY

Practical Ways to Boost Memory

Repetition and Practice: Frequent review strengthens memory.
Mnemonics: Use of acronyms or rhymes (e.g., VIBGYOR for rainbow colors).
Visualization: Creating mental images to remember things.
Association: Linking new information with existing knowledge.
Healthy Lifestyle: Proper diet, sleep, and exercise improve brain function.
Organizing Information: Break large info into smaller chunks (chunking).
Active Learning: Teaching others, doing activities helps retain knowledge.
Stress Management: Stay calm and relaxed to enhance memory recall.

FORGETTING

Meaning

Forgetting is the inability to recall previously learned information.

“Forgetting is the failure to retrieve information from memory storage.”

Causes of Forgetting-

Lack of Attention: If not fully learned, it won’t be remembered.
Decay Theory: Memory fades over time if not used.
Interference: New or old information blocks recall (e.g., studying similar subjects).
Retrieval Failure: Can’t access stored memory due to stress or distraction.
Emotional Factors: Trauma or anxiety can block memory.

THINKING

Thinking is the mental process of manipulating information to form concepts, solve problems, reason, and make decisions. It is a fundamental cognitive function that underlies most human behavior and learning.

TYPES OF THINKING

Concrete Thinking
1. Focuses on physical objects and literal meanings.
1. Example: A child understanding a dog is an animal that barks.
Abstract Thinking
Involves processing ideas, concepts, and symbolic representations.
Example: Understanding justice, love, or freedom.
Creative Thinking
1. Generating new, original ideas or finding novel solutions to problems.
1. Example: Inventing a new product.
Critical Thinking
1. Evaluating information and arguments logically and systematically.
1. Involves analysis, evaluation, and inference.
Convergent Thinking
1. Narrowing down multiple ideas into a single, correct solution.
1. Example: Solving a math problem.
Divergent Thinking
1. Generating many possible solutions or ideas.
1. Example: Brainstorming ideas for a story.
Reflective Thinking
1. Deliberate and analytical; involves reviewing and evaluating past experiences or knowledge.
Lateral Thinking
1. Solving problems through an indirect and creative approach, often by viewing the problem in a new light.

Levels of Thinking (Based on Bloom’s Taxonomy)

Remembering – Recalling facts and basic concepts.
Understanding – Explaining ideas or concepts.
Applying – Using information in new situations.
Analyzing – Breaking information into parts to understand structure.
Evaluating – Making judgments based on criteria and standards.
Creating – Producing new or original work.

REASONING

Reasoning is the cognitive process of drawing conclusions based on evidence or premises.

TYPES OF REASONING

Deductive Reasoning
1. From general to specific.
1. If premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
1. Example: All humans are mortal; Socrates is human → Socrates is mortal.
Inductive Reasoning
1. From specific to general.
1. Conclusions are probable, not certain.
1. Example: Every swan I’ve seen is white → All swans are probably white.
Abductive Reasoning
1. Inference to the best explanation.
1. Often used in diagnostics or hypothesis generation.
1. Example: The grass is wet → It probably rained.
Analogical Reasoning
1. Understanding a new situation based on its similarity to a familiar one.
1. Example: The heart is like a pump.

PROBLEM SOLVING

Problem solving involves identifying a problem, generating solutions, evaluating options, and implementing a plan.

Steps in Problem Solving-

Identifying the Problem
Understanding the Problem
Generating Possible Solutions
Evaluating and Choosing the Best Solution
Implementing the Solution
Reviewing the Outcome

Strategies Used-

Trial and Error
Algorithms – Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution.
Heuristics – Mental shortcuts that may or may not work.
Insight – Sudden realization of a problem’s solution.

CONCEPT OF APTITUDE

Aptitude refers to an individual’s natural ability or potential to learn or perform well in a particular area, given the proper training or environment.

It is innate to a degree but can be developed with practice.
Aptitude is often assessed to predict future performance or success in specific tasks or fields (e.g., academics, mechanics, music).

Think of aptitude as “potential ability” rather than current achievement.

TYPES OF APTITUDE

Aptitudes can be generalorspecific depending on the domain they relate to:

A. General Aptitude

Broad mental capacity that affects overall ability to learn or perform.
Closely related to general intelligence (IQ).

B. Specific Aptitudes

These are abilities in distinct areas, often tested through aptitude batteries-

Type	Description	Examples
Verbal Aptitude	Ability to understand and use language effectively	Writing, editing, teaching
Numerical Aptitude	Ability to work with numbers	Accounting, engineering
Mechanical Aptitude	Understanding mechanical concepts and physical principles	Technician, machinist
Spatial Aptitude	Visualizing and manipulating objects in space	Architecture, surgery
Clerical Aptitude	Accuracy and speed in administrative tasks	Data entry, filing
Musical Aptitude	Sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, and tone	Musician, composer
Artistic Aptitude	Creativity in visual arts	Designer, illustrator
Physical or Motor Aptitude	Coordination and physical movement	Athletics, dance

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN APTITUDE

People differ in how quickly and effectively they acquire new skills.
These differences are due to-
- Genetics (inborn traits)
- Environment (exposure, training, education)
- Motivation and interest in a field
- Socioeconomic background

For example: Two students may have the same level of education, but one excels in math while the other excels in writing due to differing aptitudes.

VARIABILITY IN APTITUDE

Aptitude varies across-

A. Individuals

Some people are “all-rounders”; others have highly specialized aptitudes.

B. Age

Aptitudes may change or stabilize over time. For instance, language learning aptitude is higher in early childhood.

C. Culture and Experience

Cultural factors and life experiences influence the development and expression of aptitudes.

D. Gender (to some extent)

Research shows minimal inherent differences, but societal expectations can influence how aptitudes are developed or expressed.

PSYCHOMETRIC ASSESSMENT OF COGNITIVE PROCESSES

Psychometric assessment refers to the measurement of mental abilities and cognitive processes using scientifically developed tests. These assessments aim to quantify how people think, learn, remember, solve problems, and make decisions.

COGNITIVE PROCESSES

Cognitive processes are mental activities involved in-

Perception
Attention
Memory
Language
Reasoning
Problem-solving
Decision-making

These are the core components of human intelligence and functioning.

PSYCHOMETRIC TOOLS USED TO ASSESS COGNITIVE PROCESSES

Psychometric assessments are standardized tests that measure various mental abilitiesobjectively and quantitatively.

A. Intelligence Tests-

Measure general mental ability (often referred to as “g” or IQ).
Assess multiple cognitive domains such as memory, reasoning, and verbal fluency.

Examples-

Test Name	Focus
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)	Verbal comprehension, working memory, perceptual reasoning
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales	Fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning
Raven’s Progressive Matrices	Non-verbal abstract reasoning
Cattell’s Culture Fair Test	Fluid intelligence, minimizing cultural bias

B. Aptitude Tests

Measure specific cognitive abilities related to future performance or learning.
Often used in education and career settings.

Examples-

Test Name	Focus
Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT)	Verbal, numerical, spatial, mechanical reasoning
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT)	Reasoning and academic readiness
Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB)	Multi-aptitude including general science, arithmetic, word knowledge

C. Neuropsychological Tests

Assess specific cognitive functions (especially after brain injury or disease).

Examples-

Test	Assesses
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST)	Executive function, mental flexibility
Stroop Test	Attention and inhibitory control
Digit Span (from WAIS)	Working memory
Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test	Visual-spatial memory and planning

CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOMETRIC ASSESSMENTS

Standardized: Same procedures for everyone
Reliable: Consistent results over time
Valid: Measures what it claims to measure
Norm-referenced: Individual performance is compared to a representative population

APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOMETRIC ASSESSMENT

Field	Purpose
Education	Identify learning difficulties, giftedness
Clinical Psychology	Diagnose cognitive impairments (e.g., ADHD, dementia)
Occupational Settings	Career counseling, personnel selection
Research	Study intelligence, cognition, and brain function

ALTERATION IN COGNITIVE PROCESSES

Alterations in cognitive processes refer to changes or disruptions in normal thinking patterns, perception, memory, attention, problem-solving, or reasoning. These changes may be temporary, progressive, or permanent, and can result from various psychological, neurological, or environmental factors.

1. Causes of Alterations in Cognitive Processes

A. Neurological Conditions

Dementia (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease) – Progressive loss of memory, reasoning, and language.
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) – Can affect attention, memory, and problem-solving.
Stroke – May impair language (aphasia), attention, or executive function.

B. Psychological Disorders

Schizophrenia – Disorganized thinking, impaired reality testing.
Depression – Slowed thinking, poor concentration, memory issues.
Anxiety Disorders – Impaired attention and decision-making due to hyperarousal.
ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder) – Inattention, impulsivity, poor working memory.

C. Substance Use

Alcohol, drugs (e.g., cannabis, hallucinogens), and certain medications can temporarily or permanently impair cognitive function.

D. Developmental Disorders

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) – Differences in social cognition and flexible thinking.
Intellectual Disability – Generalized impairment in intellectual and adaptive functioning.

E. Aging

Normal aging may reduce processing speed and working memory, though vocabulary and general knowledge are usually preserved.

TYPES OF COGNITIVE ALTERATIONS

Cognitive Function	Alteration	Example
Attention	Distractibility, reduced focus	ADHD, anxiety
Memory	Amnesia, forgetfulness	Alzheimer’s, TBI
Language	Aphasia, word-finding difficulties	Stroke, dementia
Executive Function	Poor planning, impulsivity	Frontal lobe damage
Perception	Hallucinations, illusions	Schizophrenia, delirium
Thinking	Disorganized or rigid thoughts	Schizophrenia, OCD
Reasoning & Judgment	Impaired decision-making	Dementia, substance abuse

SIGNS & SYMPTOMS OF COGNITIVE ALTERATION

Difficulty concentrating or making decisions
Memory lapses
Confusion or disorientation
Language problems (e.g., forgetting words)
Poor judgment
Emotional instability
Trouble planning or organizing

ASSESSMENT OF COGNITIVE ALTERATIONS

Tool/Test	Purpose
Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE)	General screening of cognitive impairment
Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA)	Detects mild cognitive impairment
Neuropsychological Testing	Detailed assessment of specific cognitive domains
Functional MRI / EEG	Measures brain activity related to cognition

MANAGEMENT & INTERVENTION

Medical Treatment– Address underlying causes (e.g., medication for depression or dementia).
Cognitive Rehabilitation– Therapy to restore or compensate for lost function.
Psychotherapy– For psychological causes like anxiety or depression.
Environmental Modifications– Routine structuring, reminders, simplifying tasks.
Lifestyle Changes– Sleep, nutrition, physical activity, cognitive stimulation.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY